Key Terms for Understanding Trends in Modern Islam

Allah-The name of the one and only God
Adhan- The call to prayer
Adab- Customs and traditions
Caliphate- The line of Caliphs starting with Abu Bakr in 632 AD and ending with Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in 1924, it is most important within the Sunni school of Islam
Dhimmi- Protected  minorities, particularly people of the book, popular in Iran and was called the millet system in the Ottoman Empire
Fatwa- A legal decision rendered by a Mufti who is qualified to make religious decisions.

5 Pillars of Islam- Generally thought of as the five most important actions a Muslim must do. The first is to believe and testify that there is no god but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of God (shahada). The second is to perform the five daily prayers (salah). Next is regular charity (zakat), followed by fasting during Ramadan (saum) and pilgrimage to Makkah (hajj) if the believer is financially and physically able.

Ghayba- The unseen, or occultation according to Shi'a beliefs

Hadith- Oral traditions attributed to the Prophet Muhammad or close associates of his. Sunnis and Shi’ias have different collections of Hadith. A minority of Muslims reject the Hadith all together, only believing that the Qur’an is the only source of Islam.

Hajj- A pilgrimage to Mecca. One of the five pillars of Islam requiring all Muslims (who are physically and financially able to) to make a trip to Mecca to visit a number of sacred sites including Kaaba, which is the most important of the religious sites.

Halal/Haram- Different acts, foods, traditions, beliefs, words etc. that are allowed or forbidden according to the rules in the Qu'ran and Hadith

Itjihad/Ijma- Itjihad is the process of reasoning in deciding a legal religious ruling, Ijama is the verdict of the ijtihad

Imam- This word can have several meanings, the most basic of which is a person leading a congregational prayer, in which case any Muslim can be an imam for a specific prayer. However, it can also be used to describe a full-time professional ‘alim, who performs functions similar to a rabbi, or in the Shi’a context, to describe the descendents of the Prophet and Ali who are said to be infallible (Imam Ali, Imam Hassan, Imam Husayn, etc.)

Islam- The submission or self-surrender to God. Derived from the root seen-lam-mim, which carries the connotation of peace and tranquility. One who practices Islam is called a Muslim.

Jihad- Meaning personal struggle. It can encompass military struggle, but has a much broader meaning and can include many types of struggle that are performed for God.

Ka'ba- The symbolic throne of God on Earth. A cubed shaped structure in Mecca, which Muslims face during daily prayers. Built by Abraham and Ishmael, it housed various idols until Muhammad destroyed them in 631AD after conquering Mecca. The structure is circled 7 times pilgrims during the Hajj and Umrah and houses a black stone.   

Madrassa- An Islamic religious school

Tawhid- Monotheism, this is Allah's absolute oneness, the key component of Islam

Mosque- In essence it is a place of worship for Muslims. Prayers and sermons are held here

Muslim- One who submits to God, a follower of the Islamic faith

Sunni- The major sect of Islam, which attempts to follow the Sunna of Prophet Muhammad and his companions. This school of Islam came from those who believed that Abu Bakr and his successors were supposed to lead the Muslim community after the Prophet’s death.

Shi'a-The largest minority sect of Islam, Shi’as believe that Ali bin Abi Talib was divinely appointed to be Muhammad’s successor, and that his right was usurped by Abu Bakr and Umar.

Sufi- Often described as “the mystical trend of Islam”, Sufism is about cleansing the heart and focuses more on experiencing God rather than having an academic understanding of Him

Qu'ran- “Recitation”- the verses revealed to Muhammad and written during his lifetime. Comprising 114 suras or, roughly translated, chapters, it is believed to be quite literally the Word of God by Muslims.

Shahada- To testify that there is no god but Allah, and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.

Sharia- The Divine Law as it exists in the mind of God- however, it is often used as if it were synonymous with fiqh, which is humanity’s attempt to understand Shari’a.

Ulama- Muslim religious scholar, these are the men that are key to itjihad 

Wahhabism- 18th century reform movement from the Hijaz, attempting to reconstruct Islam as it was practiced in the time of the Prophet. Founded by Ibn Abd al Wahhab and co-opted by the Saud family and is the state ideology of Saudi Arabia. It is criticized for producing extremists and fundamentalist thoughts while rejecting the four legal schools. It is now more or less synonymous with Salafism. Inspired such movements as Taliban and Al-Qaeda.

Zakat- This is the third pillar of Islam, regular charity generally considered to the annual payment of 1/40th of ones wealth.

     

 

 

Chaharshanbe Suri (چهارشنبه ‌سوری)

     Chaharshanbe Suri is celebrated on the last Tuesday evening of the year.  It is a prelude to the Nowruz festival and the most exciting holiday of the year for many.  Chaharshanbe Suri is also known as the "Festival of Fire" because of its ancient Zoroastrian origins, and in English it means "Red Wednesday." 


Chaharshanbe Suri celebration

      Chaharshanbe Suri was a much different holiday in ancient times.  It used to be a ten day feast known as Hamaspathmaedaya "Feast of All Souls."  Ancient Zoroastrians believed that during these final days of the year the spritis of the dead would come back to be reunited with their loved ones.  The Faravahar (human guardian angels) would also attend and people would welcome these spirits into their homes.  Just before the New Year they would send them on their way with an ancient ritual.
    
     Today Chaharshanbe Suri is a day to prepare for the Nowuz
festival.  It is a day filled with house cleaning and preparation for living
relatives, and dead ones.  Children enjoy walking through the streets covered in white shrouds to represent the dead coming to reunite with lost loved ones.  The children bang on pots and pans to represent the "beating out of the last Wednesday of the year."  Wednesday is unlucky in both Persian and Arab culture and the beating of the pots and pans hold the evil spirits of Ahriman away until it passes.  These children will also go from door to door in their shrouds asking for treats.  One of the most popular treats to receive is ajeel, which is an assortment of mixed nuts and dried fruits.

     When dusk falls the real fun begins.  Children will run through the streets swinging balls of flaming steel wool and jumping over bonfires.
Jumping over the bonfire is highly anticipated by many young people and something they look forward to all year.  The bonfires are not only for fun they are also very symbolic of ancient Zoroastrian tradition. 
     In ancient times the bonfires were kept burning throughout the night in order to keep the evil spirits of Ahriman at bay.  When the sun set these bonfires would replace the sun until dawn.  They would light three
bonfires in a triangle which represented the Zoroastrian creed of "good
deeds, good thoughts, and good words." 

     Today people normally light one bonfire, and then have some fun.  They take turns jumping over the fire chanting "Sorkhi-ye to az man; Zardi-ye man az to" which in English means "Give me your beautiful red color, and take my sickly yellow paleness."  This is considered a purification rite in which the jumper's misfortunes for the previous year are taken and burned by the fire.  The fire then replenishes the jumper's soul with a new start on life for the New Year.  Fire in ancient Zoroastrian times was the symbol for life and this idea still translates to many Iranians today. 

     One of the less practiced traditions of Chaharshanbe Suri, but none the less interesting is the idea that wishes come true on this fire-filled evening.  People will make a wish and then listen to the conversations of
people on the streets as they pass by, or they will hide in shadows where they can listen to people without being seen.  They listen to the conversations and attempt to decipher any clues in the conversation relating to their wish.  It is like ancient fortune telling through random selection.  The rest of the night will be spent with family, friends, song, and dance as the night turns to dawn and the Nowruz festival is one day closer.

Nowruz (نوروز)

Happy Nowruz!

     Nowruz is the celebration of the Persian New Year and the mark of spring.  This ancient holiday is celebrated precisely on the vernal equinox using the solar calendar.  Part of the tradition is to be able to celebrate the New Year at the exact moment the vernal equinox takes place, so there are people in Iran who's job it is to determine this exact moment in time.  This exact moment (vernal equinox) is known to Iranians as "sa'al tahvil (تحويل سال )" and is similiar to how the Western world celebrates their New Year on January 1st, at midnight. It is also customary, as in western culture, to steal a kiss as sa'al tahvil approaches. 

Here is a great link that shows the calculations for Nowruz 2011

http://www.farsinet.com/noruz/sal_tahvils.html

     Nowruz is not just a holiday it is a thirteen day festival of celebration and life anew.  Preparation for this festival is immense and highly anticipated.  It is
important to have a clean house because the visiting and hosting of family and friends throughout the thirteen day festival is customary.  Iranians refer to this spring cleaning event as "Khouneh Tekouni" which translates to "shaking the house" in English.  This customary act of spring cleaning symbolizes the rebirth of nature and is not taken lightly.  It is the single most important act in preparing for Nowruz.  The idea of rebirth and things anew also translates to clothing.  It is customary to purchase a new outfit for the coming festival to impress family and friends and show them your commitment to this New Year. 

     When the celebration begins it is customary to visit the family elders first. From there you work your way down through your family and friends.  These visits are reciprocated and make for a long day of visiting with family and friends.  If "Sa'al Tahvil" happens during the daytime it is customary for the family to sit for a nice dinner and enjoy the moment before going out to visit family and friends.  Exchanging of gifts within the family at "Sa'al Tahvil" is also customary, it is not uncommon to exchange gifts with whomever you choose as well. 

The traditional meal that an Iranian family would enjoy this special day is "sabzi polo mahi (سبزی پلو با ماهی.)"

which in English translates to "herb rice with fish."



Haft Sin table

     The centerpiece of the Nowruz festival is the "Haft Sin (هفت سین)" table.  "Haft Sin" in English means the "Seven S's."  These seven S's are very important items that symbolize the New Year.  Here they are:

• sabzeh (سبزه) - wheat, or lentil sprouts to symbolize rebirth
• samanu (سمنو) - traditional pudding from germinated wheat to symbolize affluence
• senjed (سنجد) - dried oleaster fruit (similar to a cherry) to symbolize love
• seer (سیر) - garlic to symbolize medicine
• seeb (سیب) - apple to symbolize health and beauty
• somaq (سماق) - sumac (fruit that is ground into spice and used on meat and salads) to symbolize the color of sunrise
• serkeh (سرکه) - vinegar to symbolize old-age and patience

These items all hold a special place on the Haft Sin table to collectively symbolize a "Happy New Year!"  There are other items that have become popular to include on the Haft Sin table but are not necessary.  Some of these include:

• sekkeh (سکه) - coins to symbolize prosperity
• baghlava (باقلوا) - Iranian pastry made with phyllo dough, nuts, and honey
• eeneh (ايينه ) - mirror
• tokhmeh morg (تخم مرغ ) - egg (usually decorated) to symbolize fertility
• mahi talaee (ماهي طلايي ) - goldfish to symbolize life
• a book of poetry like the Shahname by Ferdowsi, or Divan by Hafez; or a Qr'an, or Bible

The Haft Sin table is similar to what the Christmas tree of the Western world.  It is something that is unique to every family that creates one.  The qualities in a Haft Sin table are brought out by the family.  They will select the items that are closest to them and represent their family, and their hopes for the New Year.  The Haft Sin table can also become a sort of status symbol.  Humans have a tendency to want to outshine one another so the more beautiful and elaborate your Haft Sin table, the more you can impress your friends and family.

Haji Firuz

     The traditional mascot, if you will, for Nowruz is Haji Firuz (حاجی فیروز).  Haji Firuz is clothed in red and his hands and face are painted black.  He represents the ancient Zoroastrian fire keepers who would tend the fires year round.  The red represents the firekeeper dress and the black paint represents how any human would look if his job were to tend a massive fire all day.  Haji will dance through the streets banging on his tambourine sing songs of cheer and a "Happy New Year!"  A popular Haji Firuz tune goes something like this "Haji Firuz eh, sali ye ruz eh" which in English "It's Haji Firuz, it happens once a year."  Like the Zoroastrian fire keeper he also goes through the streets reminding people to burn their old items and start life anew.
     Nowruz is the most important and celebrated holiday in Iran today.  It is thirteen days of fun, family, history, and fantastic food.  The end of Nowruz is celebrated on the thirteenth day of Nowruz known as Sizdah Bedar (سیزده بدر).  On this day it is imperative that everyone leave the home and go enjoy
the day with family and friends outdoors.

Persian Civilization - Key Terms

Abu Bakr
The controversial successor of Muhammad that caused the schism between Shiis and Sunnis, Abu Bakr was the close personal friend of the prophet who took his place instead of Ali, Muhammad's cousin and brother in law. Abu Bakr took over after Muhammad, taking down both the Byzantine and Sassanid Empires in order to found the first Arab-Muslim Empire, the Umayyads. 

Achaemenid Empire

This first world empire.  Initially established by Cyrus the Great, the empire would come to encompass the vast majority of Southern Asia through Egypt and Turkey.  The Dynasty includes such leaders as Cyrus the Great, Darius, Xerxes and more. 

Ahura Mazda

The Most High God of the Zoroastrianism Faith.  The creator of all things, as proclaimed by Zoroaster. 

Ahriman
The opposite of Ahura Mazda in the Zoroastrian Faith, he is the Christian equivalent of the Devil.  

Alexander the Great

A Greek military leader who was responsible for the overthrow of the Achaemenid empire.  His military invasion also brought Hellenism into the region as well as Greek influence as far as Modern day Afghanistan. 

Aramaic

The official language of the Persian, Assyrian and Babylonian Empires.  The language was the language of trade from approximately 700- 320 B.C. 

Arsacid Empire

Overthrew the Seleucid dynasty and reestablished a Persian Empire.  The empire covered much the same lands as the Achaemenid Empire and set Persia as the Roman counterpart. 

Ctesiphon

The capital city throughout a number of empires, including the Parthians and the Sassanids.  Ctesiphon was a major militaristic target for the Roman Empire throughout the era of competition between the two superpowers.  The city is located near Baghdad in Modern Day Iraq.

Cyrus Cylinder

The world’s first humanitarian charter.  The Cylinder is a document written in Akkadian.  Cyrus is reported to have spoken the words written on the Cylinder after conquering Babylon.  The scroll gives freedom of religion to the conquered peoples under the Persian Empire.

Cyrus the Great

The militaristic leader that led the Achaemenid Empire into dominion over the bulk of Central Asia and the Middle East.  He brought unity, through military force, to the Medes, the Lydian and the Babylonian empires. 

Darius

The third emperor of the Achaemenid dynasty.  He is the leader who organized the empire.  He was responsible for building projects all over the region, but focusing on Susa, and Persepolis. 

Elamite Empire 

A small kingdom located on the shore of the Persian Gulf.  The kingdom lasted until the advent of the Achaemenid Empire. 

Farsi/Persian

The name of the language of Iran, transliterated (Farsi), and anglicized (Persian). 

Farr

The belief in divine Grace.  If a ruler had approval from God, he was able to rule, or he had Farr.

Fereydun

A mythological Iranian King who held Farr and was able to overthrow the corrupt king Zahhak. 

Gnosticism

The religion wherein a physical being is corrupt and salvation comes as one is able to thrust off the physical husk.  It is a minimalistic ideology.  Gnosticism greatly influenced the early forms of many religions including Manichaeism and Mazdakism.

Ionia

The name of Ancient Greece.  The name is still in use in the Persian language. 

Jamshid

One of the most well known figures in Iranian mythology.  He is a character in the Persian epic, Shahnameh, composed by Ferdowsi.

Karbala

The site where Husayn, son of Imam Ali, was massacred along with everyone in his party as they were traveling to challenge Umayyad rule. Karbala is a very important event to Shiis because that is when Husayn became a martyr for their beliefs.

Key Khosrow

An important figure in the Shahnameh.  He is responsible for the end of the poor relations between the houses of Iran and Turon.  He is another example of Farr.

Khosrow I

Ruled during the Sasanian Empire.  He brought about much reform in the military and in social spheres. He also made a peace treaty with the Greeks that brought peace between the Roman Christian Empire and the Zoroastrian Sasanids for a time.

Ma'mun
Ruled during the Abbasid Empire, Ma'mun appointed Taher as his general who then went on to create his own empire called the Taherid Dynasty. Ma'mun launched a cultural renaissance by supporting Greek, Arab, and Persian thinkers at court. He supported the Mu'tazila and Persianism in the Abbasid period peaked under his rule. 

Mani

The man who fathered Manichaesism.  Mani strove to meld many of the then current religions into a fused religion, which emphasized the suppression of the physical in favor of the spiritual. He lived during the early Sasanian Empire. 

Musa al-Khwarizimi
 Wrote the first text that solved linear and quadratic equations. His famous work, al-Jabr wa al-Muqbabala, is where we derive the word algebra from. 

Mu'tazila
A group of Muslims whose thought was based on Aristotelian logic. They rejected the belief of predestination because a just God would not punish you for something you were already predestined to do. They argued that the Koran has a literal, outer meaning, but also an inner spiritual meaning. 

Noruz

Nowruz is the traditional celebration of the ancient Persian New Year. Nowruz means “New Day” and is celebrated the first day of spring and the beginning of the year in the Iranian calendar. It was originally a Zoroastrian holiday and believed to have been invented by Zoroaster himself. Since the Achaemenid Empire, the date of Nowruz has been set as the Spring Equinox. During that time, kings from different nations under the Persian Empire would bring gifts to the Shahanshah of Persia. It is thought that the Jewish festival of Purim is adopted from the Persian New Year. Haft Sin, or the seven S’s, is the traditional table setting of Nowruz. It includes seven items starting with the letter S in the Persian alphabet. 

Pahlavi Script

The language sometimes referred to as Parsi or Sasanian Middle Persian. It used a form of the Aramaic script. It was probably only known by a small minority, largely scribes.

Parthia

A region in the east of present day Iran. The Parthians were originally a nomadic people who raided the eastern edges of the Achaemenid Empire until they settled in Parthia and became subjects of that empire.  The Parthians helped drive the Greek Seleucid empire out of Persia and established the Parthian empire under Mithridates (Mehrdad) I. He built an army camp outside Seleucia, which later became Ctesiphon, the capital of the empire.

Persepolis

Persepolis was one of the three capitals of the Achaemenid Empire. Persepolis was a complex of palaces located 70 kilometers northeast of Shiraz, founded by Darius. The earliest remains date from 518 BCE. Construction continued after Darius’s death by his son Xerxes and even until the downfall of the Achaemenid dynasty and conquest by Alexander the Great. Under Alexander the Great, Persepolis was burned, although it is not clear if it was intentional. 

Persia

The name of the country of Iran from the 6th century BCE until 1935 CE. 

Rostam

Rostam is the greatest hero of Iranian mythological history and a character in the first cycle of the Shahnameh. It is said that he was so large when he was born that he had to be delivered by cesarean section, the world’s first. 

Salm, Tur and Iraj

A myth from the first cycle of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh.  Salm, Tur and Iraj are the three sons of Fereydun who inherit his world empire. The west is given to Salm, the north and east to Tur, and Iran (the center of his empire) to the youngest son, Iraj. Salm and Tur are jealous of Iraj and attack and kill him. This sparks a feud between Iraj and Turan that lasts for a long time in Iranian myth and legend.

Sasanid Empire

The Sasanid Empire is the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sasanian Dynasty from 224 CE to 651 CE. Under Sasanid rule, the orthodox version of Zoroastrianism was re-instated. Sasanid rulers held the title of Shahanshah and assumed guardianship of the sacred fire, the symbol of the national religion. 

Satrap

During Darius’s reign, he divided his empire into twenty satrapies, each with a governor known as a satrap, as well as a military commander. Each satrap had a good deal of autonomy and reported to the ruler. It was an effective governing system even though it did not stop revolts and rebellions in the various regions and provinces. 

Shah

Shah literally means “king”. 

Shahanshah

Shahanshah literally means the “king of kings”. It was the title that many Persian rulers took. Basically it means emperor. 

Shanameh

Shahnameh is the best-known and complete source of Persian mythology. It means “The Book of Kings” and was written by the poet Ferdowsi around 1000 CE. It is made up of three cycles: the Pishdadiyan; which is pure mythology, the Keyanyan; a combination of myth and legend, and the Sasanian; an account of the history of the Sasanian monarchy. 

Silk Road

The Silk Road was an extensive network of trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East Asia with the Mediterranean and North Africa and Europe. Its name comes from the lucrative Chinese silk trade. The general route passed along northern Iran and was an important path for cultural, commercial and technological exchange. During the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian Royal Road linked different routes of the Silk Road. The Royal Road ran from Susa to the port of Smyrna in modern Turkey. It had postal stations and relays at regular intervals with fresh horses and riders at each relay. 

Susa

Susa was an ancient city of the Elamite, Persian and Parthian empires of Iran. Today, the modern Iranian town of Shush is located at the site of ancient Susa. 

Ummayads
661-750 C.E. They were the first Arab-Muslim dynasty after Abu Bakr defeated the Sasanids. They stressed the primacy of Arabs but adopted many Sasanid administrative processes. Arabic became the official language at court but because many people still spoke Persian the two scripts fused together. 

Wild Ass Bahram I

Bahram V or Wild Ass Bahram was the fourteenth Sasanid King of Persia. He was the son of Yazdegerd I and took the throne by force. He loved music, wine, women and hunting gur (wild ass). According to tradition, he died in quicksand while hunting. 

Xerxes

Xerxes was the son of Darius and continued his work on Persepolis during the Achaemenid Empire. 

Yazdegerd I

Yazdegerd I (399-421 CE) was a Sasanid king who was favorable to Christians, which angered Zoroastrian priests. The Shahnameh describes his death; he was kicked to death by a mysterious, and possibly divine, horse. 

Zoroaster

Zoroaster is the prophet of the Zoroastrian faith. The date of his birth is a matter of controversy, but it is said to be sometime between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE. 

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism is the world’s first recorded monotheistic religion. It has ideas of last judgment, heaven, hell and Satan. The holy book is the Zend-Avesta, which was written in Avestan: the language of the Achaemenid dynasty. Ahura Mazda is the one creator and ruler of all. Cyrus the Great was the first Zoroastrian Persian emperor. The Zoroastrian symbol Faravahar is meant to symbolize the ideal state.